می خواهم گوینده شوم !


تعارف را بگذاریم کنار حرفه گویندگی از جمله مشاغل مورد علاقه و به قول من جذاب ! کار رسانه ای است شاهد این مدعا هم هزاران داوطلبی است که در آزمونهای گویندگی شرکت می کنند و از میان این افراد گاهی هیچیک امتیاز لازم را نمی آورد !در متنی که بزودی برای شما ارسال می کنم بخشی از ویژگیهای یک گوینده ورزشی را یادآور می شوم . ولی به عنوان پیش درامد این موضوع خدمتتان عرض می کنم مهمترین خصوصیات یک گوینده برون گرا بودن و توانائی برقراری ارتباط مطلوب و مثبت با دیگران است .افراد درون گرا و گوشه گیر طبیعتا در این حرفه موفقیت چندانی بدست نمی آورند .در طول سالهائی که در رادیو یا تلویزیون مشغول به کار هستم گویندگان و مجریانی موفق بوده و هستند که توانسته اند با زبان مخاطب صحبت کرده و با ارتباط صحیح با آنان زمینه اعتماد و همراهی مخاطبان را فراهم کنند و این مزیت کمی نیست.پس قبل از اینکه بخواهیم این شغل را انتخاب کنیم ببنیم تا چه اندازه اهل معاشرت و به قول من جوشیدن با مردم هستیم تا بعد به مراحل فنی تر این شغل برسیم توی بخش قبلی این بحث گفتم که برای شروع این کار(گویندگی ) اول باید یکسری شرایط ذاتی آن را داشت مثل داشتن روحیه ارتباط و جوشیدن با مردم ، در ادامه این مبحث مواردی دیگه از کلیات کار را براتون می گم و بعد می رسیم به بحث اصلی من که شرایط یک گوینده ورزشی است

1. تن صدا : این موضوع یک نعمت خدادادی است و مثل خیلی از هنرمندان که ویژگیهای منحصر به فرد خود را دارند و بواسطه آن از دیگران متمایز می شوند داشتن طنین صدای مناسب و دلنشین هم استعدادی خدادادی است که با تقویت وآموزش می توانیم آن را بهبود بخشیم (نکته مهمی است به صدای خودتان خوب گوش کنید البته نه به آوازهای خود در حمام !!)

2. چهره جذاب : تلویزیون یک رسانه دیداری است و شما از طریق آن با مردم ارتباط پیدا می کنید بنابراین داشتن یک حداقل هائی از زیبایی اجتناب ناپذیر است ! این ویژگی هم خدادادی است البته شما می توانید با یک مقدار تغییرات تا حدودی چهره خود را دگرگون کنید مثلا شما می توانید با زدن عینک و یا تغییر فرم آرایشی ریش و سبیل تغییراتی را در چهره خود بوجود بیاورید

3. اعتماد به نفس : من تعبیرم از گوینده موفق کسی است که آرامش زیادی دارد در بسیاری از موارد زندگی ما داشتن آرامش می تواند گره گشا باشد اگر اصولا آدمی هستید که اضطراب زیادی دارید سراغ گویندگی نروید چرا که بدون اعتماد به نفس دچار تزلزل می شوید و در ارائه کار ناموفق خواهید بود

4. آشنائی با ادبیات فارسی : شرط لازمه چرا که در یک رسانه گسترده و فر اگیر مثل تلویزیون کار می کنید و مخاطبان شما از طبقات مختلف هستند و اشتباهات دستوری و زبانی شما به شدت به اعتبارتان لطمه می زند مردم ما هم خدا خیرشان دهد اگر صد بار اجرای خوب داشته باشی و یک اشتباه هم حالا ! در بین کار پیش بیاید شما را با همان اشتباهتان یاد می کنند !! بنابراین زبان و ادبیات فارسی و قواعد ومقررات حاکم بر آن را باید به خوبی بدانید

5. تحصیلات آکادمیک : گوینده ای که در رشته خاص خودش تحصیلات دانشگاهی هم داشته باشد موفق تر است مثلا شما گوینده خبر اقتصادی هستید اگر تحصیلات و یا حداقل اطلاعات مناسب و کاملی از مفاهیم اقتصادی و رویدادهای این بخش در کشور و جهان داشته باشید آنوقت کار را بهتر اداره می کنید وبه قول قدیمیهای کار گویندگی روی کار راه می روید ( یعنی موضوع در دستتان است )

در بخش بعدی درباره گویندگی خبر ورزشی مطلبی خواهم نوشت (یک بررسی کنید ببنید واقعا گوینده هستید اگر سئوالی هم دارید کامنت بگذارید )

اول توصیه می کنم دو قسمت قبلی کار را حتما بخوانید!(می خواهم گوینده شوم )، امروز می خواهم در باره یکی دیگر از ملزومات مهم یک گوینده برای شما مطلبی بنویسم و آن حس گویندگی است .با یک مثال ساده بحث را شروع می کنم برای بیشتر ما این موقعیت پیش آمده که در جمع دوستان باشیم و بازار تعریف و گفتن نکات ناشنیده ! و ... در شکل حرفه ای تر آن خبر ،داغ باشد ،وقتی در موقعیت بازگو کردن خبرها و نکات جالب برای دوستان بر می آئیم ، معمولا با تمام وجود و به قول معروف با آب و تاب جریان را تعریف می کنیم و سعی می کنیم با نگاه به چهره دوستان و دیدن عکس العملهای غیر کلامی آنها (ارتباط چهره به چهره ) همراهی جمع را تا پایان تعریفمان حفظ کنیم . برای اینکار مطمئنا باید خیلی انرژی صرف کرد و تا بتوانیم نظر مساعد و علاقمند دوستان جمع را تا انتهای ماجرا و شنیدن توضیحاتمان حفظ کنیم ،این شیوه به زبان ساده یعنی گرفتن حس و حالی که به شما کمک می کند در ارائه بهتر مطلب ، در فن گویندگی هم تقریبا موضوع به همین شکل است، یک گوینده خبر با اینکه در استودیوحضور دارد و مخاطبان در منازل و موقعیتهای دیگر و در اصل ارتباط یکسویه است ، ولی داشتن این حس که الان در جمع آنها هستم و به صورت چهره به چهره برای مخاطبان خبرها را اجرا می کنیم شما را به سمت خبرگویی و نه خبرخوانی پیش می برد داشتن این حس به شما کمک می کند در قالب رسمیت یک گوینده خبر ، صمیمیت یک دوست را هم در کلام خود داشته باشید و نتیجه آن ارتباط بهتر و انتقال آسانتر اطلاعات و خبرها ست و این کار کوچکی نیست

امیدوارم که سه مبحث قبلی توجهتون رو جلب کرده باشه ، درباره بداهه گوئی چقدر اطلاعات دارید؟ در برنامه های غیر خبری زیاد این مورد دیده می شود ( چون در خبر زمان بسیار محدود است ) مجری در فواصل بین بخشهای برنامه مطالبی را با استفاده از سواد و دانش زبانی خود ارائه می دهد و تلاش می کند شما را (مخاطب عزیز،بیننده محترم و از این حرفها ..!) تا پایان برنامه حفظ کند، این بخش از هنر گویندگی بسیار مهم است چرا که یک مقدار جفنگ گوئی ! می تواند بشدت به اعتبار گوینده و برنامه خدشه وارد کند و شما بینندگان عزیز کانال را عوض کنید !، بداهه گوئی یعنی توانائی و مهارت گوینده برای اجرای بخشهایی از کلام و گفتار که در متن برنامه وجود ندارد ولی با موضوع برنامه مرتبط است .می گویند تا زمانی که حرف نزدی کلام در اختیار شما ست وزمانی که آن را بیان کردی شما در اختیار کلامتان قرار می گیرید !! بنابراین برای این که بتوانید فی البداهه صحبت کنید و حرف خوب بزنید ( نه خوب حرف بزنید !!) باید اهل مطالعه مستمر و جامع باشید و گنجینه واژگان خود را تقویت کنید .برای خود من بارها پیش آمده ، برای اینکه زمان برنامه یا بخش خبری را پر کنیم مثلا حدود یک دقیقه یا بیشتر مطالبی را بیان کرده ام که در جمع وجور کردن آن گاهی گرفتار شدم چرا که هر کلام مبحث جداگانه ای را باز می کند و بیننده منتظر نتیجه آن است (البته من یک رکورد هم دارم سال ۱۳۷۶ و برنامه آخرین روز هفته با ورزش که جمعه ها پخش می شد در بین دو نیمه فوتبال نوار پلی بک ( نواری که آیتمهای مختلف روی آن ضبط و در برنامه پخش می شود )آماده نبود و من مجبور شدم تمام ۱۵ دقیقه بین دو نیمه فوتبال را حرف بزنم که مطمئن هستم خیلی از اونها خارج از حوصله بیننده بود .به عنوان نتیجه اگر توان بداهه گویی داشته باشید نه تنها در اجرا بلکه در مذاکره و یا سخرانی و خلاصه در بسیاری از امور کلامیتان موفق خواهید بود ، فقط مطالعه می خواهد

ما در زندگی خودمون معمولا به حرف افرادی اعتماد داریم یا حداقل گوش می کنیم که اونها را قبول داشته باشیم ، یعنی از اون شخص در ذهن ما تصویری مطلوب و مشروع نقش بسته باشه که اندازه این مقبولیت متفاوته از کم تا خیلی زیاد ، در بحث گویندگی هم این موضوع یکی از پارامترهای تعیین کننده است یعنی شما بین گویندگان و گزارشگران یکسری از اونها را قبول دارید و به توضیحان وبرنامه آنها گوش میکنید و جزو انتخابهای شما هستند. ولی این مقبولیت برای یک گوینده چطور بوجود می آید ؟ عوامل مختلفی وجود دارد یکی از اونها تصویری است یا image که ما قبلا از خودمون ارائه داده ایم و در ذهن مخاطبان نقش بسته است بذارید یک مثال بزنم سال ۱۳۷۶ بود که من برنامه ای تحت عنوان مجله کشتی را تهیه می کردم در آن زمان یادم هست علیرضا دبیر تازه قهرمان مسابقات کشتی جوانان جهان در فنلاند شده بود و من یکی از گزینه های مورد نظرم برای اجرای برنامه دبیر بود چرا که هم قهرمان این رشته بود و هم خصوصیات موثر یک مجری را تقریبا داشت اتفاقا چند جلسه ای هم با دبیر روی این موضوع کار کردیم و چند تا تست گویندگی هم داد ولی این اتفاق نیفتاد چرا که سرمربی او در آن زمان ( آقای معزی پور ) به من گفت اگر دبیر سراغ این کار بیاد از راه قهرمانی دور می شه و خلاصه نشد البته دبیر بعدها قهرمان جهان و المپیک هم شد ،از این موضوع استفاده می کنم برای اینکه بگویم یک گوینده نسبت به برنامه ای که اجرا می کند باید در ذهن مخاطب خود یک تصویر قبلی مناسب داشته باشد مثلا فرض کنید یک سیاستمدار برجسته و مورد قبول یک برنامه سیاسی را اجرا کند یا یک اقتصادان بسیار خبره و معروف بیاید در تلویزیون به معرفی ونقد سیاستهای کلان وخرد اقتصادی کشور بپردازد و مواردی اینگونه ... البته این یک شکل کار است بخش دیگر آن مقبولیتی است که در طول زمان یک گوینده برای خود ایجاد می کند مثلا شما گزارشگران فوتبال زیادی را در سیما می بینید ولی تعدای از آنها را قبول دارید چراکه توانسته اند با ارائه اطلاعات مناسب ومورد نیاز شما و بکار گرفتن شیوه ای که در جذب مخاطبان ( یعنی شما بینندگان عزیز ) موثر است ، کار خود را به خوبی ارائه دهند .بنابراین به عنوان نتیجه خدمت شما عرض میکنم که در مبحث گویندگی یا باید از زمینه قبلی شهرت واعتبار آن رشته برخورد دار بود و یا باید در طول زمان با بکار گیری شیوه های مناسب علمی وعملی به آن جایگاه در نزد مخاطبان رسید و صد البته آن را حفظ کرد !

در بخش معرفی ویژگیهای گوینده یک مقدار تاخیر افتاد ، راستش من تا با وبلاگ و تکنیکهای آن آشنا شوم یک مقدار کار می برد !! واما بحث این فرصت ما از شما بییندگان محترم زیاد این کلام را شنیدم که از گوینده ای تعریف می کنید و از دیگری انتقاد ! دلایل مختلفی برای این موضوع وجود دارد یکی از مهمترین اونها مسلط نبودن مجری ها بر روی مطالبی است که ارائه می دهند چه باید کرد ؟ این مطلبی را که می گوئیم راهی است که خودم پیمودم و نتیجه بدی نگرفتم ، در کار خبری مخصوصا ! گوینده ای که می خواهد به استودیو پخش زنده برسد باید مراحلی را طی کند به نظر من شروع کار با خبرنگاری و گزارشگری است گوینده که مراتب رشد خود را از دل این دو حرفه بسیار کلیدی آغاز کرده موفق است چرا که توان بداهه گویی او بالا می رود و نوشتن خبر ،بستن گزارش، ارتباط زنده ، برخورد با مردم و مسئولان و بسیاری از موارد دیگر را یاد میگیرد و در نهایت به درک درستی از کار خبری و تهیه و شناخت خبر می رسد خوب پس این می تواند گام اول باشد در ادامه راه گوینده ای که کار خود را از رادیو آغاز کرده است قطعا موفقتر خواهد بود چرا که در رادیو یاد میگیرد بر کلام و آهنگ اجرای متون مختلف خبری تسلط بیشتری پیدا کند ( بدون تعارف بگم گویندگان زیادی داریم که شیوه خواندن خبر هواشناسی او با خواندن یک خبر اقتصادی مهم تفاوت نمیکند !) بعد از این مراحل که معمولا چند سالی زمان می برد گوینده پخته تر و آماده تر شده ( اگر اتفاقی نیقتد) وبه رژی پخش زنده می رسد و برای گویندگی خبر بسیار آماده است ، در این زمان وقتی شما اجرای او را از تلویزیون می بینید و به دلتان می نشیند ، می گوئید عجب گوینده خوبی است !!

معتقدم امروز فقط زیبائی چهره نمی تونه ملاک انتخاب یک گوینده برای رسانه تلویزیون باشه ، گسترش علوم ارتباطی و مطرح شدن مفاهیم دیگری مانند ارتباط غیر کلامی ، موجب شده در بحث انتخاب گوینده و آموزش آن راههای علمی تری را دنبال کنیم بحث امروز من درباره ارتباط غیر کلامی و اهمیت آن در گویندگی است ارتباط غیر کلامی در مفهوم دقیق آن یعنی غیر زبانی ، تمام نشانه ها و علاماتی را شامل میشود که از طریقی غیر از زبان منتقل می کنند ، هر خبر دارای بار روحی مختص به خود است برخی خبرها از محتوی شادی برخوردارند ، بعضی خبرها شما را غمگین می کند و .... بنابراین گوینده ضمن اینکه متناسب با نوع خبر ( به لحاظ آهنگ کلام خود ) آن را اجرا می کند می تواند در کنار این موضوع از ارتباط غیر کلامی هم بهره ببرد همراهی چهره وبرخی حرکات دست گوینده با وجه موضوعات (مثبت یا منفی شاد یا غمگین و..)که نظر غالب مردم است نقش مهمی در ایجاد ارتباط موثرتر با مخاطب ایفا می کند .خاطرم هست هنگامی تیم ملی فوتبال در آخرین بازی خود در راه جام جهانی 2002 در منامه مقابل بحرین متوقف شد و از رسیدن به جام جهانی بازماند تاثر قلبی که من نسبت به این موضع داشتم( وشاید خیلی از بینندگان ) هنگام اجرای خبر و بعد از آن در بخش گفتگوی ویژه خبری کاملا محسوس بود ( البته همین جا این نکته رو هم ذکر کنم که این نظریه مخالفانی هم دارد دوستانی که معتقدند اولا گوینده باید آرامش را به بیننده خود منتقل کند و دوما جهت گیری در اجرای خبر واکنش منفی و احیانا موضع گیری مخاطب را به همراه دارد ، حتما توجه دارید که منظور من از ارتباط غیر کلامی جهت گیری به نفع یا بر علیه موضوعی نیست) به هرحال معتقدم گوینده هم انسانی مثل مخاطبانش دارای عواطف و احساسات که با بکارگیری صحیح و در حد معقول آن می تواند در ایجاد و استمرار یک ارتباط مطلوب با مخاطبان موفق باشد البته ذکر این نکته هم را ضروری می دانم که رعایت اعتدال در هرکاری توصیه شده است مثلا گوینده ورزشی باید به لحاظ ویژگیهای یک فضای ورزشی(سرزندگی ،شادابی و ...) معمولا لبخندی هم بر لب داشته باشد ولی همراهی این لبخند با خبر باخت تیم ملی .... حرفهای نا مربوط !! مخاطبان را در پی خواهد داشت ! پس مثل هر موضوع دیگری توجه به زمان و مکان را در بکارگیری تکنیکهای ارتباطی به شما و خودم توصیه می کنم تا بعد ...

The duty, honesty and qualities of Journalist

The duty, honesty and qualities of Journalist
The duty of a Journalist is to find out the truth and inform it to the society. So, much skill is required to be a good Journalist in the inner mind, be should have the thirst to serve the mankind. Actually the work done by him is a service. Many facts come out by courageous Journalists only. The prime duty of a Journalist is to find out the truth and put his views on it.

The duty conscious Journalist has to forget food and sleep, as the responsibility on him is much more and he should be ready to work on odd hours and face tough situations. He should strive hard for fishing the facts and come to a conclusion, before publishing and article.

To increase circulation, he need not compromise with anybody or anything. The Journalist should have a good understanding relation with the editor. The Journalist should double check while quoting names and places, as the wrong quoting may invite trubles. He should show interest in expressing facts required for the audience. He should not write in a controversial way, suppressing facts. The duty of the Journalist is to present the news to the public based on which they can come to a conclusion. He should write in an unbiased manner. The Journalist need not write in a conventional way always and the presentation may be modern, to impress audience. He should not write simply what others say but write what they feel.

The Journalist should be very careful while giving numbers. For example: while reporting about accident, as far as possible, he should be correct in giving how many persons died and how many persons injured. The Journalist has to work under pressure always and daily deadlines are fixed for him.
He should give importance to pruning issues first. Then he can cover other normal items, based on priorities.

The Journalist must have mission, vision and goal in life. There is always a risk in the life of a Journalist. The Journalist may be threatened for exposing the facts. Sometimes the Journalist may work very hard and find out the truth, but the editor, May not publish it to avoid displeasure of the person connected. The Journalist should be able to express his views in an accurate and honest way. He should give voice to the voiceless people. He should not give any flase news or suppress any fact, to safeguard somebody. He should act boldly at times of grief. He should never misuse his position for gaining some benefit. The freedom of press has got much value in the society. So, the Journalist has to be loyal, honest and lead a disciplined life.
The Qualities of a good Journalist are consisting in:
Curiosity:
It is easier for Journalist to ask the right questions if they are already personally curious to know the answers.

News Sense:
Recognizing news usually comes with practice, but some people seem to be born with it.
Perseverance:
Not giving up when struggling to find out information in the face of bureaucratic inertia, subterfuge or outright opposition.
Objectivity:
A good Journalist leaves personal views, and prejudices at the newsroom door. The Journalist duty to society is to inform, not to persuade. Give the facts, from all sides, as far as you are able, and let people make up their own minds.
Skepticism:
Journalist should develop a good measure of skepticism when dealing with officials, companies and other authorities. Sources want to give you information that puts them in a favorable light. However such skepticism should not become total cynicisms.
Comfortable with people:
Most stories come from people. There is room in Journalist for the quiet, introvert but Journalist who can mingle easily with all types of people have a better chance of finding things out. The duty of a Journalist is to find out the truth and inform it to the society. So, much skill is required to be a good Journalist in the inner mind, be should have the thirst to serve the mankind. Actually the work done by him is a service. Many facts come out by courageous Journalists only. The prime duty of a Journalist is to find out the truth and put his views on it.

The duty conscious Journalist has to forget food and sleep, as the responsibility on him is much more and he should be ready to work on odd hours and face tough situations. He should strive hard for fishing the facts and come to a conclusion, before publishing and article.

To increase circulation, he need not compromise with anybody or anything. The Journalist should have a good understanding relation with the editor. The Journalist should double check while quoting names and places, as the wrong quoting may invite trubles. He should show interest in expressing facts required for the audience. He should not write in a controversial way, suppressing facts. The duty of the Journalist is to present the news to the public based on which they can come to a conclusion. He should write in an unbiased manner. The Journalist need not write in a conventional way always and the presentation may be modern, to impress audience. He should not write simply what others say but write what they feel.

The Journalist should be very careful while giving numbers. For example: while reporting about accident, as far as possible, he should be correct in giving how many persons died and how many persons injured. The Journalist has to work under pressure always and daily deadlines are fixed for him.
He should give importance to pruning issues first. Then he can cover other normal items, based on priorities.

The Journalist must have mission, vision and goal in life. There is always a risk in the life of a Journalist. The Journalist may be threatened for exposing the facts. Sometimes the Journalist may work very hard and find out the truth, but the editor, May not publish it to avoid displeasure of the person connected. The Journalist should be able to express his views in an accurate and honest way. He should give voice to the voiceless people. He should not give any flase news or suppress any fact, to safeguard somebody. He should act boldly at times of grief. He should never misuse his position for gaining some benefit. The freedom of press has got much value in the society. So, the Journalist has to be loyal, honest and lead a disciplined life.
The Qualities of a good Journalist are consisting in:
Curiosity:
It is easier for Journalist to ask the right questions if they are already personally curious to know the answers.

News Sense:
Recognizing news usually comes with practice, but some people seem to be born with it.
Perseverance:
Not giving up when struggling to find out information in the face of bureaucratic inertia, subterfuge or outright opposition.
Objectivity:
A good Journalist leaves personal views, and prejudices at the newsroom door. The Journalist duty to society is to inform, not to persuade. Give the facts, from all sides, as far as you are able, and let people make up their own minds.
Skepticism:
Journalist should develop a good measure of skepticism when dealing with officials, companies and other authorities. Sources want to give you information that puts them in a favorable light. However such skepticism should not become total cynicisms.
Comfortable with people:
Most stories come from people. There is room in Journalist for the quiet, introvert but Journalist who can mingle easily with all types of people have a better chance of finding things out.

News Values
We’ll use the following(9) categories as those covering the major News Values:
Timeliness, Proximity, Impact, Conflict, Oddity, Sex, Emotion, Prominence and Progress:
If any one of these values is present, a history has News Values, but many stories contain more than values. Remember this latter fact as you study the material that follows because even though the 9 values are used as the framework for this discussion, several of the examples given might just one possible classification; another course pack-shack might classify these values under deferent categories.
Rather than memorizing a set of categories, your chef concern will be to develop your understanding of what constitutes an interesting news story.

Timeliness:
Did something happen recently or did we just learn about it? If so, that could make it newsworthy. The meaning of “recently” varies depended since the previous edition the week before many be considered timely. For a 24-hour cable news channel, the timeliest news many be “breaking news” or something that is happening this very minute and can be covered by a reporter live at the scene.
Information has timeliness if it happened recently:
Recently is defined by the publication cycle of the news medium in which the information will appear.
· For Newsweek events that happened during the previous week are timely.
· For daily newspaper, however, events that happened during the 24 hours since the last edition of the paper are timely.
· For CNN headline News, events that happened during the past half hour are timely.

Proximity:
Readers are interested in what happens close to news of an event to the readers or listeners and how closely it touches their lives. People are interested mainly in themselves, their families, their friends and their home town, their jobs, improvement or progress stories are important in their degree of proximity.
Information has proximity if it involves something happened somewhere nearby.
· If a bus wreck in India kills 25 people, the Nashville Tennessean will devote maybe three or four grafs to the story.
· But if the bus wreck in downtown Nashville kills 25 people, the Tennessean will devote a sizable chunk of its front page to the story.

Impact:
Are many people affected or just a few? Contamination in the water system that serves your town’s 20,000 people has impact because it affects your audience directly. A report that 10 children were killed from drinking polluted water at a summer camp in a distant city has impact too, because the audience is likely to have a strong emotional response to the story. The fact that a worker cut a utility line is not big news, unless it happens to cause a blackout across the city that lasts for several hours.
Information has impact if it affects a lot of people.
· A proposed income tax increase, for instance, has impact, because an income tax increase would affect a lot of people.
· The accidental killing of a little girl during a shootout between rival drug gangs has impact, too. Even though only one person –the little girl –was directly affected, many people will feel a strong emotional response to the story.

Conflict:
Sporting events, wars and revolution are the most common examples of conflict in the news. Man maybe pitted against man, soccer team against another soccer team, nation against nation, or man against the natural elements. A story about a pilot struggling to land a crippled airliner or a fisherman rescuing the flood-hit is some examples.
Information has conflict if it involves some kind of disagreement between two or more people.
· Remember how, when you were a kid, everyone would run t watch a fight if one erupted on the playgroup?
· Fights have drama—who will win? And invite those watching to choose sides and root for one or more of the combatants.
· Good democracy involves more civil we hope conflicts over the nature of public policy. That’s why the media carry so much political news. Journalists see themselves as playing an important role in the public debate that forms the basis for democracy.

Oddity:
The unusual or strange will help lift a story out of the ordinary. If an ordinary pilot parachuted out of an ordinary plane with an ordinary parachute and made an ordinary landing, there is no real news value. However, if the aviator had only one leg, this is news; or if the parachute fails to open and the pilot lands safely, this is also news. More examples: The man who bit his dog or the plane that landed even though the pilot had bailed out. Or if a dog bites a man this is not news, if a man bites a dog this is news.

Sex:
Sometimes sex is the biggest single element news, or at least it appears to be the element that attracts readers the most. Consider all the stories in papers that involve men and women sports, financial news, society and crime. Sex, in discussing news elements, covers far more than a Hollywood star’s impending visit. The element of sex ranges from front-page sensationalism, to even news involving engagements and marriages. Nevertheless, any type of news that overemphasizes the cheesecake element is considered to be in poor taste.

Emotion:
The emotional element, sometimes called the human interest element, covers all the feelings that human beings have, including happiness, sadness, anger, sympathy, ambition, hate, love, envy, generosity and humour. Emotion is comedy; emotion is tragedy; it is the interest you have in humankind. A good human interest story can range from a real tearjerker to a rollicking farce.

Prominence:
Prominence is a one-word way of saying “names make news”. When a person is prominent, like the president of the US, almost anything “He” does is newsworthy –even his church attendance. But prominence is not restricted or reserved for VIPS only. Some places, things and events have prominence too. For example: the Rashrapati Bhavan (a place) the hope Diamond (a thing) and Diwali (an event) all awaken interest.

Progress:
In our technologically advanced society, we are interested in space exploration. Therefore, developments of more powerful and advanced rockets to propel manned space flights are of great interest. But progress does not always have to be dramatic …an improvement in paper clips can also be a “great leap forward”.








News Values
The best point of news that knows news is the elements of news. Without elements of news, reporter can not make news. With elements of news we can make interesting news for the Mass Media.
The elements of news are six numbers:
They are: Who, When, Where, How, What and Where.
Who: Reporter must to know and find the things and the persons to prepare the news. In this cause, it is very important to reporter find this elements of news and know the subject of news. Ex: the president speaks in Kabul University.
When: time is a happening in every cause of the news values (timeliness). If the events of happen times has important. The reporter must to put the timeliness of events to the basic of news and increase this point. Ex: today announce the results of concern. This nature is give information and technology nature for itself.
Where: this element is include to the proximity of news values and defined for us, the place of happening. In the cities of events place happening is very important to announce. Ex: tomorrow is the celebrate day of the graduation university site. Bomb explosive to Kabul at the near wazracbar khan.
What: It shows, which kind of event come in. like: a accident, election, making in news may has a lot what elements and reporter must to find a good that has very a lot values between them.
Why: this element defined the reason of news or a happening. Ex: the president in Kabul University has a conference yesterday, because the new educational year started.
How: how element can defined the quality of events. Ex: with tourism minister announce start the tourism conference in Kabul. In this example (with tourism minister announce) is how element.

Media History

Media History
Before getting into the specifics of the print and digital media revolutions let's look at media in general: How do we define media? Or more accurately, how do media define us? In what ways are media agents of cultural change? Why do print and digital mediums have different effects, or messages?
Advancements in media technology are now becoming the calibration marks for history's major paradigmatic shifts. "Mediology," even, is a recognized and ever-expanding field of study. French radical theoretician, Regis Debray, for instance, proposes three historical ages of transmission technologies: the logosphere (the age of writing, technology, kingdom, and faith), the graphosphere (the age of print, political ideologies, nations and laws), and the newly born videosphere (the age of multimedia broadcasting, models, individuals, and opinions). Though these temporal strata have not been widely accepted, Debray's work exemplifies the fact that the technologies of transmission have taken on a position in our culture of vertiginous power --- almost omnipotence --- as media now get credit for shaping not only to the information we distribute and consume, but our powers of perception, our political, social and economic systems, and our general constructions of truth.
Media and their wide-ranging effects have been around ever since humanity has been conglomerating into tribes and nations and developing methods of communication --- ways of extending the scope of one's naked voice beyond hearing range, and giving form and substance to one's thoughts. The Paleolithic cave paintings at Lascaux, in other words, are no less viable (although less ubiquitous) expressions of media than TV shows and magazines of today. But the schematic analysis of media --- the recognition and study of its impact on every aspect of social living, is only a few decades old. Carlyle may have claimed in the 1830s that the printing press destroyed feudalism and created the modern world; Plato, as Derrida emphasizes, may have pointed to the effects of writng 2,500 years ago, but the wide-ranging attention today given to media and their effects is, on the whole, unprecedented. Even more fundamental, the concept of the malleable individual constructed by his "field of cultural production," as Pierre Bordieu called it, has been tossed around for centuries. Back to the days when the actors of the ancient Greek and Roman stage jumped in an out of personalities as quickly as they affixed their various masks, notions of the inconstancy of the human condition have been entertained.
The nineteenth century brought about major ideological change that set the stage for media studies. What with a God dethroned by that mundane insurgent, science, the chaos that seized Western nations around the close of the nineteenth-century seemed unparalleled in history. Darwin had come up with a convincing theory of evolution which smacked God-fearing members of the Victorian Age square in the face. He dismantled on a grand scale the moral, spiritual, and even political, foundations of the Western world--- a world hitherto comfortably centered around the almighty God who bestowed tidy, immutable essences in each one of His human creations. Darwin, along with a heady battalion of progressive philosophers and scientists --- including pioneers of the brand new social sciences: sociology, psychology, anthropology, et al --- quite effectively threw into question the fundamental meaning for human existence. The notion that human beings have malleable personalities largely constructed by the environment in which they develop --- the subjectivity of experience --- began to gain currency and scientific evidence in the late 1800s, and established the foundation on which the grandfather of media theory, Marshall McLuhan, would base his claims half a century later .
McLuhan introduced into the language our present usage of the term media, as well as a number of other concepts, including "the global village," "the medium is the message," and "The Age of Information," that since have become commonplaces. By fall of 1965, his most popular and optimistic book, Undertanding Media: The Extensions of Man, had procured him a position as a faddish social theorist and, to some, a prophet. A review in The New York Herald Tribune, representing a consensus of informed opinion, called him "the most important thinker since Newton, Darwin, Freud, Einstein and Pavlov..." McLuhan's notoriety and credibility faded away by the time of his death, in 1980: he had become increasingly recalcitrant in public, his words, increasingly nonsensical, even absurd, and the print medium, which he had pronounced obsolete, was popular as ever. (There are innumerable examples of McLuhan's often brash effortd to shock the public. My favorite is the announcement in 1971 of s new product tha he created with his nephew, chemist Ross Hall. He called the formula Prohtex, and it removed the semll of urine from underpants without masking the other, more intersting smells, such as perpiration---an iumportant form of communication for preliterate man. He was preparing the world, facetioulsy, for the global village.) But McLuhan was not altogether a harlequin. Today his words resonate with eerie prescience. Critic Gary Wolf writes:
In recent years, the explosion of new media --- particularly the Internet --- has caused new anxieties. Or to put a more McLuhanesque spin on it, the advent of the new digital media has brought the conditions of the old technologies into sharper relief, and made us suddenly conscious of our media environment. In the confusion of the digital revolution, McLuhan is relevant again ("Wisdom of St. Marshall" 124).
McLuhan's Message
Calling media "the extensions of man," McLuhan based his theory on the fact that content follows form, and the insurgent technologies give rise to new structures of feeling and thought, new manners of perception. He saw media as "make happen agents" rather than "make-aware" agents, as systems "similar to roads and canals, not as precious art objects or uplifting models of behavior, and he repeatedly reminds his readers that his proposition is best understood as a literary trope, not as scientific theory" ("Wisdom of St. Marshall" 124). Delighting in the power of the pun, he constantly cites as his authorities the modernist idols of the Age of Print and quotes at length from the novels of James Joyce, particularly Finnegans Wake, and the poems of T.S. Eliot and William Blake, and the letters of John Ruskin.
McLuhan riddled his work and his everyday parlance with word-play, and became notorious for firing quips at his opponents such as: "You think my fallacy is all wrong?" According to this relentless deconstructionist, the pun is a "breakdown as breakthrough." The pun breaks down the movement of normal language revealing that something has been repressed. In other words, the pun is a breakthrough to reality when it breaks down some expected movement. McLuhan turns all literary techniques for crossing different kinds of discourse into different ways of grasping reality and uses all of them most effectively as devices to probe media. He applied this poetic alienation of language to his formula for addressing two things that our civilization (especially today) is concerned about --- the alienation of the self and the alienating influence of technology. In a Playboy interview from March, 1969, McLuhan said:
My work is designed for the pragmatic purpose of trying to understand our technological environment and its psychic and social consequences. But my books constitute the process rather than the completed product of discovery; my purpose is to employ facts as tentative probes, as means of insight, of pattern recognition... I want to map new terrain rather than chart old landmarks...
Needless to say, McLuhan, himself, was disturbed by his experience of alienation from new media --- he was alarmed as much as he was intrigued by it. His interest lay, as I said earlier, not in promoting media, but in making the public aware of media's overwhelming effects. And he drew the attentions of a vast audience through his positions as professor, author , and cultural critic. McLuhan's major works included The Gutenberg Galaxy, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, The Medium is the Massage --- his only bestseller, which combines word and image in a way that transformed his readership's expectations of what a book should be --- and his posthmously published work, The Global Village. The lasting themes of his works --- the ones that interest us most today --- revolve around the two quantum leaps in communications technology which I explore in this thesis. As Lewis Lapham explains in his introduction to Understanding Media:
Beginning with the premise that 'we become what we behold," that "we shape our tools, and thereafter our tools shape us,' McLuhan examines the diktats of two technological revolutions that overthrew a settled political and aesthetic order: first, in the mid-fifteenth century, the invention of printing with moveable type, which encouraged people to think in straight lines and to arrange their perception of the world in forms convenient to the visual order of the printed page; second, since the late nineteenth century, the new applications of electricity (telegraph, telephone, television, computers, etc.), which taught people to rearrange their perception of the world in ways convenient to the protocols of cyberspace. (xi-xii)
The Medium is the Message
Perhaps McLuhan is best remembered for his assesment of the subliminal effects of the medium --- its powers of hypnosis. He predicates his claims about the power of media on a belief in the mutability of man. We are the content of our media. therefore our modes of perception are unnatural. McLuhan rejects General David Sarnoff's statement that "We are too prone to make technological instruments the scapegoats for the sins of those who wield them. The products of modern science are not in themselves good or bad; it is the way that they are used that determines their value." According to McLuhan, Sarnoff ignores the fact that the nature of the medium, of any and all media, is to creep inside the participant unnoticed: "in the true Narcissus style, one is hypnotized by the amputation and extension of his own being in a new technical form... For any medium has the power of imposing its own assumption on the unwary. Prediction and control consist in avoiding this subliminal state of Narcissus trance" (Understanding Media 15).
Simulacra
Some individuals, according to McLuhan, are able to resist media's powers of indoctrination. These are the artists who aspire to uncover truth, to look reality straight in the eyes, getting past all the cultural clutter; the ones who comment on cultural conventions, the mythic creations of media. Marcel Duchamp, for instance, hung a toilet from the ceiling and called it art. Andy Warhol put an everyday can of soup on a canvas, rearranging the context in which that object takes on value. Both made plain the fact that we assume that reality restricts things to a particular purpose, or use value, but then we can bend or reconfigure it. "The effects of technology do not occur at the level of opinions or concepts, but alter sense ratios or powers of perception steadily and without any resistance. The serious artist is the only person able to encounter technology with impunity, just because he is an expert aware of the changes in sense perception" (UM 15) The artist, according to McLuhan, has a particular sensitivity to patterns of perception.
The very fact that media, like metaphors, transmit and transform experience limits them to the realm of simulacra. What media depict as reality are only translations of reality. The concept of the simulacrum is central to Jean Baudrillard's analysis of postmodern consumer society, "with its endless networks of media and advertising images that... precede any reality to which they might be said to refer" (Baudrillard 104). Plato's simulacrum is a debased reflection, understood as inferior to the abstraction from which it is derived. It challenges the very notion of a "true copy" or an authentic rendering. Even today, when a multimedia have the capacity to generate such a potent sensory experience, such a comprehensive rendering of reality, authenticity is out of reach. In her essay, "Imprisoning of Reality," Susan Sontag discusses the limitations of media:
Reality has always been interpreted through the report given by the images, and philosophers since Plato have tried to loosen our dependence on images by evoking the standard of an image-free way of apprehending the real... Most contemporary expressions of concern that an image world is replacing the real one continue to echo, as Fuerbach did, the Platonic depreciation of the image: true insofar as it resembles something real, sham because it is no more than a resemblance. (376)
We do well to keep in mind, during this discussion of two quantum leaps in communications technology, that the medium is, by its very nature, a sham.
Repercussions of new media
McLuhan's exploration of media goes as far back as the creation of the alphabet. The media which dominate a particular time period ascribe particular modes of understanding to the culture in which it operates. Each medium reveals, communicates and instills important aspect of reality, of truth. For example, the creation of the alphabet generated a reality based on patterned code. It distinguished more definitively what Ferdinand de Saussure called the signifier and the signified. Writing encouraged an analytical mode of thinking with an emphasis on lineality. McLuhan explains the message of the alphabetic medium: "It is in its power to extend patterns of visual uniformity and continuity that the 'message' of the alphabet is felt by cultures" (UM 170).
The media's effects are not restricted to abstruse notions of reality and manners of perception. Another example of the consequence of media in culture relates to the more physical arena of politics --- the arrangement of governing and economic powers. When an alphabet imposed itself on oral cutter it
meant power and authority and control of military structures at a distance. When combined with papyrus, the alphabet spelled the end of the stationary temple bureaucracies and the priestly monopolies of knowledge and power. Unlike pre-alphabetic writing which with its innumerable signs was difficult to master, the alphabet could be learned in a few hours. The acquisition of so extensive a knowledge and so complex a skill as pre-alphabetic writing represented, when applied to such unwieldy matters as brick and stone, insured for the scribal caste a monopoly of priestly power. The easier alphabet and the light, cheap, transportable papyrus together effected the transfer of power from the priestly to the military class. (UM 174)
Media are therefore invested with the power to structure themodus operandi of both the individual and society at large.
A precursor to the Digital Revolution, the Cubist movement revolted against the rigid, one-sided uniformity on which print and realist painting were contingent. Cubism disregarded the fixed vanishing point --- and with it, the inexorable truth of the artist into which the viewer's gaze obsequiously disintegrated. Cubist painters took full advantage of their medium --- realizing that a two dimensional canvas and a set of paints permit far more than a specialized illusion of the third dimension. Instead, McLuhan explains, "cubism sets up an interplay of planes and contradictions or dramatic conflict of patterns, lights, textures, that 'drives home the message' by involvement... By giving the inside and outside, the top, the bottom, back and front and the rest, in two dimensions, drops the illusion of perspective in favor of instant sensory awareness of the whole" (UM 12).
The cubist movement, of course, was limited to a small band of artists, and therefore did not seize the nation with the ubiquity of mass media. But in today's world, where personal computers are fast becoming as common to the household as the phone, the masses (of the Western world) are becoming intimate with the multiplicity of perspectives represented in cubist painting. The space created by the digital medium is hypertextual --- that is, it creates a vast network of interconnected literary, graphic, auditory, and cinematic texts, none of which are privileged over the others, where interpreted meaning is as multifarious and unfixed as the perspective of a cubist painting. Charles Ess argues that "perhaps the most compelling claim made for hypertext systems is that they will democratize access to information and thereby contribute to a greater democratization of society" (246). I will explore this latter relationship later, in further detail, but I include these various examples to demonstrate how different forms of media can promote radically different messages --- and therefore radically different configurations of sensory experience, and, by extension, society. Critic and theologian Ross Snyder calls media "Architects of the consciousness... The media architects alter our conceptions of time and space just as did the architects of the past" (323).
No Medium Becomes Extinct
Just as our city streets are festooned with architecture of a whole range of styles --- some dating centuries back, our modes of perception reflect a compendium of media influences: the dominant one of the time as well as vestiges of its predecessors which may never become obsolete.
McLuhan explains, borrowing from the work of Alexis De Tocqueville, the political symptoms of print media in eighteenth-century France and Britain: "[In France] the typographic principles of uniformity, continuity and lineality had overlaid the complexities of ancient feudal and oral society. In England, however, such was the power of the ancient oral traditions of common law, backed by the medieval institution of Parliament, that no uniformity or continuity of the new visual print culture could take complete hold... Hence the discontinuity and unpredictability of English culture" (UM 14). The paradigmatic shift from oral to written culture, did not necessarily render the oral obsolete, as De Tocqueville suggests in his explanation of the discontinuity and unpredictability of English culture.
When new media descend upon a culture they do not eradicate the influence of their antecedents, but reposition and supplement them. McLuhan had faith in the Digital Revolution only with the understanding that we will continue to value the booty reaped from print media:
Those who panic now about the threat of the newer media and about the revolution we are forging, vaster in scope than that of Gutenberg, are obviously lacking in cool visual detachment and gratitude for that most potent gift bestowed on Western man by literacy and typography: his power to act without reaction or involvement. It is this kind of specialization by dissociation that has created Western power and efficiency. Without this dissociation of action from feeling and emotion people are hampered and hesitant. Print taught Western man to say, "damn the torpedoes. Full steam ahead!" (UM 178)
A new medium is never an addition to an old one, nor does it leave the old one in peace. It never ceases to oppress the older media until it finds new shapes and positions for them. Each medium, if its bias is properly exploited, reveals and communicates a unique aspect of reality, of truth. Each offers a different perspective, a way of seeing an otherwise hidden dimension of reality. It's not a question of one reality being true, the other ones distortions. One allows us to see from here, another from there, a third from still another perspective; taken together they give us a more complete whole, a greater truth . New essentials are brought to the fore, including those made invisible by the "blinders" of old languages. Yet a new language is rarely welcomed by the old. The oral traditions distrusted writing, manuscript culture was contemptuous of printing, book culture hated the press, that slap-dag heap of passions.
The Commodious Space of Digital Media
McLuhan put his faith in Christ and was deeply committed to a holistic sense of "all-at-onceness." Herein lay his optimism about the digital medium: Everything everywhere happens simultaneously. There is no clear order or sequence. This sudden collapse of space into a single unified field dethrones the visual sense. This is what the concept of the global village means to its inventor: "we are all within reach of a single voice or the sound of tribal drums." For McLuhan this future held a profound risk of mass terror and sudden panic but he found great promise in the powers of digital communications and compares the mystical unification of humanity (the global village) to the Christian Pentecost. He saw in digital media the potential to "breakdown and breakthrough" the immuring "lineality" of the printed text, and the detached, hyperrational mind of the reader of print. In Understanding Media he trumpets:
Electromagnetic technology requires utter human docility and quiescence of meditation such as benefits an organism that now wears its brain outside its skull and its nerves outside its hide. Man must serve his electronc technology with the same servo-mechanistic fidelity with which he served his coracle, his canoe, his typography, and all other extensions of his physical organs. But there is this difference, that previous technologies were partial and fragmentary, and the electric is total and inclusive... No further acceleration is possible this side of the light barrier. (84)
Although McLuhan saw that this electric speed and interconnectedness could bring all social and political functions together in a sudden implosion --- that an aspiration for wholeness, empathy and depth of awareness is "a natural adjunct to electronic technology" --- he by no means discounted the advantages of Gutenberg's brainchild.
* * *
Despite McLuhan's insistence that print and digital technologies have such radically different impacts on the user---and on culture in general, I shall examine the evidence that the two mediums had remarkably similar receptions into the public sphere: a mad flurry of literary expression on a widespread, individual level. It's almost impossible for us today, in our world of xerox and fax machines and laser printers --- to imagine how revolutionary the opportunity to duplicate and disseminate one's opinions in a public sphere was in the mid-seventeenth century. The beliefs of a private individual had heretofore been weightless, silent, and for all intensive purposes, nonexistent. We members of the late twentieth century, on the other hand, have been enjoying the liberties of print--- that is, the freedom to duplicate and give substance to our opinions --- for decades, even before the digital medium extended them.
But the liberties of unmitigated pamphlet production were felt only temporarily. Democratized expression could not endure in a society which privileged rational, linear modes of operation. McLuhan's analysis of media not only as translators but sculptors of information --- is especially useful when addressing the fate of certain forms of expression. As we will see with regard to the pamphleteers, the dominant cultural voice perched at the top of a rigid hierarchy eventually reclaimed its authority with the restoration of monarch Charles II to the throne. De Tocqueville explained that British civilization was volatile, prone to destabilization because the influences of oral tradition remained in place even after the impact of print. The desire for the free flow of expression that oral culture accommodated was therefore in place, latent, and probably impatient to achieve fruition. But if the medium is an architect of space --- and print was the dominant architect of the time --- that space will permit only a certain configuration of expression. I will be looking at the space that digital technologies are creating today, and what personal, social, and political configurations this space will permit.